WILLIAM SHATNER: Twisted cords concealing secrets
to an ancient mountain empire.
A quest of mythic proportions
carved into a mysterious runestone.
And a universal ruler
intentionally hidden for all eternity.
Throughout the course of human history, many kingdoms
have prospered and expanded their territory,
only to one day collapse into the sands of time.
And with their demise,
secrets as to how these cultures lived,
fought, and ruled simply vanished.
Fortunately, tantalizing clues left behind
offer historians and archaeologists
the opportunity to piece together
what remains of the ancient past.
For instance, what can an intricate gold artifact
from a mountain lake or a towering megalithic pyramid
reveal about the people who made them?
Well, that is what we'll try and find out.
♪ ♪
Perched precariously on a mountaintop
nearly 8,000 feet above sea level
lies an ancient city that looks like
it's floating in the clouds.
Built around 1450 A.D., this curious engineering marvel
stands as the crowning achievement of the Inca Empire
and is known as Machu Picchu.
Machu Picchu is a technological marvel.
For one thing, it's a fairly good-sized city,
and it was built at an incredibly high elevation.
And it's sculpted into the mountains.
It takes a bit of time to even get up there.
EDWIN BARNHART: The moment you walk in, you think to yourself,
"How did anyone
build this on top of sheer cliffs?"
It's a perilous journey.
The mountainside is straight up and down.
And so, after climbing up to this huge height,
you see that the buildings themselves
seem to blend into the landscape.
As an archaeologist who has worked on sites
around the world and seen incredible
engineering achievements,
Machu Picchu kind of blows it all away.
We're talking massive, multi-ton stones
shaped and moved into place,
and they fit together perfectly.
And this mountain site, somehow, was transformed into
an enduring city and survives 500 years later
in absolutely perfect condition.
SHATNER: Perhaps the greatest mystery of Machu Picchu
is why did the ancient Incas choose to build
a sprawling city
in such an inaccessible mountain location?
SABINE HYLAND: The Incas had a incredibly sophisticated culture.
We know that in the Inca Empire, when a building was built,
it had to be made strong in the spiritual world
as well as in the physical world.
As you walk through, you can see how the Inca artists
echoed the shapes of all the mountains in the construction
of Machu Picchu in honor of the mountain gods around it.
On the other hand, just saying that only tells us a little bit.
There is still a huge amount of mystery
about what Machu Picchu was for.
SHATNER: Some believe that Machu Picchu's true purpose may be connected
to the great ruler who ordered its construction,
Emperor Pachacuti.
Machu Picchu was built by the Emperor Pachacuti,
who's known as, really, the founder
of the Imperial phase of the Inca state.
One thing to remember is that, in the Inca Empire,
the emperors can... were considered divine.
They were considered like gods.
And when an emperor died, his body was mummified,
and it was treated as if he was still alive
so that their worship could continue.
And so, after Pachacuti's death,
his family would still go and use Machu Picchu,
and we believe that when they did so,
they brought the mummified body of the emperor with them.
SHATNER: Did Emperor Pachacuti build Machu Picchu
to be a sacred site in the mountains,
where his mummy could rest for all eternity?
It seems like a reasonable theory,
but there's just one problem.
Pachacuti's remains have never been found.
However, in recent years,
some have suggested that the emperor's mummy
may be hidden in a secret chamber at Machu Picchu.
In 2010, a French engineer by the name of David Crespy
was doing some measuring work within the city of Machu Picchu.
And he noticed what was quite clearly a doorway,
blocked up by stones. And it clearly
was blocking the entrance into some kind of a chamber.
He reported it immediately to the authorities,
and people have suggested that this might well be
the entrance into some kind of tomb.
We could be looking at a royal burial.
So, is it the tomb of Pachacuti?
HUGH NEWMAN: Now, they did
more tests and more scans, and they found what appeared to be
gold-lined steps going down into this area.
They wanted to push forward and excavate this,
because this would have been,
without doubt, the most important discovery
ever found at Machu Picchu.
But then, apparently, the Peruvian government
have kind of put a block on it
and stopped the progression of this.
Because they were concerned if it was dug into it may collapse.
SHATNER: Are Pachacuti's mummified remains, and with them,
the secrets of Machu Picchu, concealed in this chamber?
For now, the answers may lie sealed behind a stone wall.
But perhaps there's another way
to solve the mysteries of Machu Picchu.
Although the Inca did not leave behind any written records,
they did encode information in strange threads
that are known as quipus.
HYLAND: Quipus are twisted chords that redefine what writing is,
because some of them are incredibly complex
with hundreds of pendants, dozens of colors,
and they have knots that represented words,
and they were read syllable by syllable.
If you're in an empire like the Incas,
where people spoke many, many, many different languages,
if you have a writing system or a communication system
that is not tied to speech
but uses symbols, uses ideas,
then people who speak different languages
can come together and understand those records.
And what's really mysterious
is that there were narrative quipus.
And, supposedly, these narrative quipus
had biographies. They had poems.
They had histories. They served as letters.
The Incas would have used quipus
during the construction of Machu Picchu.
If we could decipher them,
quipus could give us insights into that whole process.
That could really unlock the mysteries of the Incas for us.
SHATNER: Will translating these intricate rope knots reveal
why the Inca built the mountain kingdom of Machu Picchu?
It's an intriguing possibility, and one that illuminates
how important it is to decipher the relics of the past.
Like in the case of a delicately crafted miniature
found hidden in the jungles of Colombia.
It's a piece of art that many believe tells the story
of an ancient culture with riches so vast
they built a city constructed entirely of gold.
Its name?
El Dorado.
SHATNER: Spanish conquistadors, led by Francisco Pizarro,
capture the Incan Emperor Atahualpa,
and kill 5,000 of his men in the course of just one hour.
Pizarro is on a quest to both conquer the New World
and plunder as much gold as he can find.
Pizarro starts to take these gold and riches
from the kingdoms of the Andes.
And this really starts a precedent for conquistadors
trying to take riches and send them back to Europe.
This quest for gold is what drives them.
BELLINGER: From the European point of view, once there was
the hint of gold up in the hills of South America,
it was an absolute frenzy.
The indigenous people all around them
were literally draped in gold,
the likes of which Europeans never would see back at home.
SHATNER: As the Spanish conquistadors encountered indigenous people
throughout South America,
they heard stories of a vast city made entirely out of gold.
In fact, the Spanish came up with a name for the golden city.
They called it El Dorado.
The name El Dorado comes from the words "the golden."
That's literally what it translates to.
The Spanish trekked through rain forests
and across swollen rivers and up icy mountains
in search of what they assumed had to be a hidden city of gold,
a place of untold riches just waiting to be plundered.
There were similarities to all of these stories,
and that kept the Spaniards thinking,
"Well, maybe there's something to this. Maybe it's not a myth."
And because they don't know exactly where it is
it starts to be thought of as a lost city.
SHATNER: The Spanish belief that El Dorado
was a real lost city of gold was reinforced
when they came into contact with a mysterious civilization
known as the Muisca people.
The Muisca were the indigenous people who occupied
this particular highland area of the Andes,
which is, today, Colombia.
And they occupied this area for about a thousand years,
beginning in 600 AD. And, in fact,
they were so sophisticated
that they really take their place alongside
better known empires in the region, such as the Inca.
LEVY: The Muisca were incredible goldsmiths.
They were really skilled craftsmen at goldwork--
finely wrought, thinly pounded gold.
They made animals, they made gold
that was depictions of their deities.
SHATNER: Spanish Conquistadors searching for El Dorado
came to believe that it was built by the Muisca
because of a curious ritual they supposedly performed
high in the mountains
at a body of water known as Lake Guatavita.
When the Muisca initiated a new leader,
there was a very specific ceremony
that they performed on Lake Guatavita.
The leader would plaster his body in gold dust.
He would climb into a raft surrounded by priests.
At his feet was a pile of offerings,
gold and jewels.
Once they had paddled out to the middle of the lake,
he would make his offering to the god.
And that involved dropping all of the valuables
off the raft into the water,
and then diving in himself, so that the gold dust
would be washed from his body.
LEVY: When the conquistadors begin to hear about these rituals
that involve gold and a golden man,
it stood to reason that this place, El Dorado,
a lost city, is going to be somewhere out there.
SHATNER: The Spanish heard rumors that the Muisca
had performed this golden ceremony at Lake Guatavita
for a thousand years,
since the beginning of their civilization.
The conquistadors believed that El Dorado
must be an ancient, hidden city where, centuries earlier,
the ancestors of the Muisca had stockpiled
vast amounts of gold to be used in the sacred ritual.
LEVY: As conquistadores kept trying to find El Dorado,
they found a lot of gold,
they found goldwork made by the Muisca
that was really, really elaborate,
and they kept getting just enough
to sort of tantalize them to know or believe
that there would be more,
but they never quite found
the El Dorado that they had been looking for.
SHATNER: Although the Spanish failed in their quest to find El Dorado,
for centuries, treasure hunters from around the world
journeyed to South America in search of the lost city.
And then, in 1912,
an incredible discovery was made
at the bottom of Lake Guatavita.
LEVY: Hartley Knowles, a British engineer, came to Lake Guatavita
and, with a mining company, was able
to completely drain the lake to the bottom.
He found gold, rumored to be about $20,000 worth,
but what happened was as the lake went down,
all the silt and mud at the bottom
hardened in the sun until it was like concrete,
and they couldn't get any more gold out of the bottom.
JAGO COOPER: They cut a notch out of the side of the hill
and drained the lake.
But it only remained drained for about 24 hours
before the lake refilled.
But what they found was some objects that sort of showed that
this idea of offerings being thrown into the lake was true.
SHATNER: Even more incredible evidence of the Muisca rituals
was found later, in 1969, in a nearby cave.
BELLINGER: In 1969, some villagers
stumbled upon an absolutely spectacular find
in a ceramic jar.
They found an exquisite raft
crafted all out of gold.
The workmanship was incredible.
But even more exciting is that
it corroborated everything that had been written down
about the Muisca rituals in Lake Guatavita
when they were initiating a new ruler.
SHATNER: Since the story of the ritual performed by the Muisca chief
was proven to be true, does that suggest that
the tales of El Dorado, the lost city of gold,
could also be true?
And if so, where might it be hidden?
LEVY: Cities in the Amazonian region, over time, have a tendency
to become absorbed and enveloped by the jungle.
South America is an incredible place to keep secrets
and for a lost city like El Dorado to dwell.
SHATNER: Could El Dorado have really existed only to be swallowed up
by the dense jungle, its vast riches buried and beyond reach?
Perhaps one day other precious artifacts like the golden raft
will be unearthed and provide yet another clue
to solving the mystery of the lost city of gold.
But there's another object of fascination,
this one made of stone,
that inspired a search of an entirely different kind--
a quest to find a mythical outpost
of the infamous Nordic warriors
known as the Vikings.
SHATNER: According to a collection of medieval prose
called the Icelandic Sagas,
a group of Vikings were said to have taken a daring voyage
from Scandinavia across the Atlantic Ocean
on a journey to reach a faraway realm known as Vinland.
The Sagas describe Vinland as a bountiful paradise
and, for centuries, historians thought
it was merely the stuff of myth and legend.
But then, in 1960,
Norwegian husband-and-wife team Helge and Anne Ingstad
set out to prove not only that Vinland was a real place
but also that it was located in North America.
SCOTT A. MELLOR: Helge and Anne Stine Ingstad combed the entire
coast of Canada to try and find this site.
And they were very confident that the Sagas
had an element of fact about it.
And they were right, they did.
SHATNER: The Norwegian couple uncovered the remains
of a Viking settlement on the northern tip of Newfoundland
that dated to the 11th century AD.
This profound discovery, which is now
a UNESCO World Heritage Site called L'Anse aux Meadows,
is indisputable proof that the Sagas may hold more truth
about the Vikings than we ever thought possible.
BILL: L'Anse aux Meadows is actually the physical evidence
of Scandinavian habitation on the North American continent.
The Vikings did discover North America
500 years before Christopher Columbus.
THOMPSON: We know that there were Viking settlements in the New World.
When I was a young boy that was considered a legend.
Now it is historical fact.
And they may have actually been more extensive
than we see in the Sagas themselves.
MELLOR: L'Anse aux Meadows is in Newfoundland.
And we know that they were there.
But then, of course, it begs the question,
how far in did they get?
SHATNER: Is it possible the Vikings
traveled deep into North America?
Well, there are those who believe the answer is yes,
and they claim the proof can be found
more than 2,000 miles away from Newfoundland...
...in Alexandria, Minnesota.
This small city, about 130 miles northeast of Minneapolis,
is home to the Runestone Museum.
Inside is an artifact that many point to as evidence
that the Vikings traveled well beyond
the northeastern tip of Canada
and into the heartland of America.
Because on display is the remarkable yet controversial
Kensington Runestone.
The Kensington Runestone is about the size of a gravestone.
And it was discovered in 1898 in Kensington
in Douglas County in Minnesota
by a Swedish immigrant, Olof Ohman,
and it is covered in runes.
And what intrigues people is that
it seems to be incontrovertible proof
that the Vikings were there.
THOMPSON: Runes are Viking works of art.
And runestones are located
pretty much throughout the Viking realm.
Runes were kind of cumbersome to write with.
And so things tended to be short.
So what you end up with is very often cryptic poetry
with a tremendous amount of meaning
packed into very obscure passages.
So, even to be able to understand these runes
was sort of a master craft.
SHATNER: For over a century, people have speculated about the meaning
of the cryptic markings on the Kensington Runestone.
By comparing it with other known runestones,
historians have theorized that the stone
tells the tale of a Viking expedition.
McMAHON: Allegedly, the Kensington Runestone
has an intriguing story
written in Runic script,
about a group of about 30 Vikings
who journey from Vinland
all the way down into what is now Minnesota.
Now, ten of them are massacred
en route by the local people.
But the suggestion is that these Vikings
made it to the interior of North America.
SHATNER: Based on this translation,
many believe that the Kensington Runestone is a memorial
to Vikings who died on their quest to explore North America.
But skeptics have questioned the stone's authenticity.
McMAHON: This could either be a genuine account
of an incredible journey by intrepid warriors
deep into America, or the other theory
is that this was Swedish immigrants
trying to prove to their neighbors
that they had a much longer presence
and an entitlement to be there
because their ancestors had been there.
But the idea that these warriors ventured deep into North America
into places that we know well today, Minnesota--
that really captures the imagination.
Did a group of Viking explorers,
adorned with axes and shields,
venture deeper into the forests of North America
than we've been led to believe?
Whatever the truth may be,
discoveries that rewrite the timeline of human history
have far-reaching implications.
Such is the case with an ancient kingdom in Southeast Asia
that constructed what may be
the oldest pyramid on Earth.
In the countryside of this lush, tropical island
located in the Indian Ocean
lies a mountain that, from a distance,
looks no different from any other peak in the region.
But close examination of the mountaintop reveals
a series of ancient stone terraces
that are littered with thousands of megalithic blocks.
This intriguing site is known
as Gunung Padang.
NEWMAN: Gunung Padang has all these
remarkable kind of hexagonal basalt columns
as part of the entire construction.
Hundreds of thousands of them, in fact.
Each of the stones-- they weigh up to
about a third of a ton each.
They make up the foundation, and they're also placed
in certain configurations at the top.
There's something very powerful about this place.
It was only really rediscovered by farmers
over the last few decades.
It is almost untouched.
It's like it hasn't been known about for thousands of years.
It makes you wonder who could have done this and when.
SHATNER: The thousands of stone blocks strewn atop Gunung Padang
are a perplexing sight. It's hard to imagine
what structure they could have been part of
or what purpose they served.
And the origin of these curious ruins
has long been shrouded in mystery.
But in 2013, archaeologists excavating the mountain
discovered that the truth about this mysterious site
is hidden beneath layers of dirt and rubble.
COLLINS: A team of experts did drilling,
they did radar surveys and they did radiocarbon testing.
And what this revealed is that, beneath the site
that is visible today, which includes a number
of incredible stone settings and rock mounts,
is something even more incredible.
We now know that this site
does actually conceal beneath it
a massive pyramid complex.
NEWMAN: Gunung Padang is really like a step pyramid
buried under stone and earth.
And the evidence suggests this is extremely ancient
and is a very, very important place.
SHATNER: The revelation that Gunung Padang is actually
the ruins of a massive pyramid made headlines around the world.
And in recent years, further investigation of the site
has been led by geologist Danny Hilman.
Danny and his team believe they have uncovered evidence
of a hidden chamber.
SHATNER: The discovery of a chamber buried underground
has added to the mystery of Gunung Padang.
But the most significant revelation so far is that
this structure might be the oldest pyramid ever built.
SHATNER: Ancient Egypt's Pyramid of Djoser
has long been considered the world's oldest pyramid.
But based on Danny Hilman's research,
Gunung Padang's buried pyramid
could be ten or even 20,000 years older.
If Gunung Padang is a 20,000-year-old pyramid,
it would place an hitherto undiscovered culture
at the heart of Indonesia.
And it would completely disrupt our understanding
of the evolution of human technology around the world.
SHATNER: Do the technological achievements
of a lost civilization lie hidden
within the stone chambers of this ancient pyramid?
It's no surprise that the empires of the past would
go to great lengths to conceal their most precious secrets.
Such is the case surrounding the actual resting place
of one of the most feared rulers in history.
It is the mystery of the lost tomb
of Genghis Khan.
SHATNER: Towering above the sparse landscape is a massive,
130-foot-tall statue made of stainless steel.
This magnificent monument is a depiction
of Mongolia's most famous ruler:
Genghis Khan.
THOMPSON: Genghis Khan is one of the most prominent figures
in all of history. And he came up as
a very small, minor player in what was a small,
minor country that most of the world hadn't heard of.
But by the time he had died,
he had conquered most of the known world.
STEAVU: Genghis Khan is unquestionably
Mongolia's greatest cultural
and historical and national hero.
He was at the head of
one of the largest empires in the world,
second only to the British Empire.
And many people, maybe outside of Mongolia,
might remember Genghis Khan for the bloodshed and conquests.
But he was also at the origins of many technological,
scientific, astronomical developments and advancements.
SHATNER: After 20 years of empire building,
Genghis Khan died in the year 1227 AD
while battling the Western Xia dynasty.
Khan's exact cause of death is a mystery.
But before he passed, he commanded that
his final resting place should be unmarked
so that his tomb would be undisturbed forever.
STEAVU: The circumstances of his burial are quite mysterious.
According to legend, Genghis Khan's body
was brought back to Mongolia
by a group of 2,000 servants
who were guarded by a group of soldiers.
The servants were all killed by the soldiers.
Now, the soldiers themselves were then killed
by a second group of soldiers
who then themselves committed suicide
so that the burial site would remain
forever undisturbed and unknown.
THOMPSON: Many great rulers in many parts of the world
have wanted not to display one's body, but rather to hide it.
And that would have been the practice by Genghis Khan.
Because he knew that his tomb, if it was ever uncovered,
would be an enormously political tool for whoever uncovered it.
And he wanted to control that legacy.
SHATNER: In the eight centuries since Genghis Khan's death,
many have tried to find his tomb.
But thus far, no one has been able to defeat
Khan's drastic measures to keep its location a secret.
Which naturally begs the question: where could it be?
A French archaeological expedition ventures
deep into this rugged region of northern Mongolia
to find Genghis Khan's lost tomb.
The team believes that the tomb may be hidden near
a particular mountain peak that is known is Burkhan Khaldun.
SHATNER: Burkhan Khaldun is almost 8,000 feet high
and covers more than 93 square miles.
Exploring this vast, rugged terrain is made
even more difficult because in 2015
the mountain was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site,
rendering if off-limits to any excavations
in search of Genghis Khan's tomb.
Mongolians, in general, still desire
to honor Genghis' Kahn's wishes.
They discourage archaeological digs to try to find the tomb.
He is still very, very much a hero in Mongolia.
And his wishes are still respected.
SHATNER: Because of the restrictions against
searching Burkhan Khaldun,
members of the French expedition decided that
the key to finding Genghis Khan's tomb
was to explore the mountain from the sky.
And in 2016, they used drones
equipped with both photographic and infrared cameras
to do an unprecedented survey of the area.
SHATNER: After surveying the mountain from above,
the French team made an extraordinary discovery.
They identified a mound that was 130 feet high
and 820 feet wide
that they believe might be man-made.
The French team that accessed the mountain
identified that the pyramid-shaped elevation
also had a little shrine
and it sits atop of this sacred mountain.
So, they speculate that this would
probably be where Genghis Khan is buried.
SHATNER: Is it possible that the structure
discovered by the French expedition on Burkhan Khaldun
is the tomb of Genghis Khan?
For now, that question is unanswered,
because the Mongolian people remain committed to honoring
the revered emperor's dying wish
that his tomb should never be found.
SHATNER: Located near the border of Russia and Mongolia,
this region is known for its vast grasslands.
But in 2021, archaeologists from the Russian Academy of Sciences
made a remarkable discovery.
While conducting an aerial survey,
they spotted an enormous symbol known as a geoglyph
that was formed using carefully arranged pebbles and sandstones.
PAUL BAHN: In Central Asia we have something called
the Siberian Bull.
It's a very simple drawing just done with dark stones
making the outline of a tail and the back legs of an animal.
And, fortunately, it's linked quite closely
to an early Bronze Age burial,
so we reckon it must date to back to 2,000 BCE.
It is some 4,000 years old, and still there.
Research on this is still ongoing,
but it shows that there's still so much
about these geoglyphs and the beliefs and the values
that were held by the ancient people who made them
that we do not know.
SHATNER: The Siberian Bull is ten feet tall and 13 feet long,
and is the first geoglyph of an animal
discovered in Central Asia.
But what's more remarkable is that
even larger ancient geoglyphs have been found
all over the world.
Many of them are so vast
that they can only be identified from the sky.
BAHN: Geoglyphs are an astonishing phenomenon.
They're found in many, many parts of the world,
primarily in deserts.
And they are often of huge size,
involving an enormous amount of work.
Geoglyphs can be divided up, really, into the ones
that just look like geometric shapes to us,
and there are many, many of those.
You have lines which just look like roads or paths
going on for miles.
And then, of course, you have what seem to us to be
depictions of birds, animals, humans.
And they must all have very different meanings
to the cultures that produced them.
NEWMAN: In March 2022, archeological researchers found
what could be the largest geoglyphs on the planet
in the Thar Desert of ancient India.
They stretch over a huge distance,
and one of them kind of forms into what appears to be
a kind of strange spiral.
And there's other ones which are like sinuous serpents.
MIANO: One of the more fascinating geoglyphs
is the Uffington White Horse that was found
in Oxfordshire, England.
They dug trenches and they filled them with chalk
to create this beautiful horse,
which itself is 3,000 years old.
And we expect to find more as time goes on.
SHATNER: Why did so many ancient cultures across the world
labor to carve these enormous figures and symbols
that could only be fully seen from the sky?
Well, according to some researchers,
it could be because the people who created the geoglyphs
intended them to be viewed not by man but by gods.
BAHN: It seems a reasonable supposition
that a lot of these images, which only make sense
from the air, were very much tied to things in the heavens.
There are astronomical orientations
of some of the lines
and some figures may represent constellations.
But there are so many possibilities because there are
so many hundreds of different geoglyph types
that you can't simply put one explanation on all of them.
SHATNER: Recently, a new theory has been proposed to explain the famous
Nazca Lines in Peru, which date back more than 2,000 years.
BAHN: The great Nazca Lines are done in one continuous line--
the monkey or the spider.
We've always assumed that the people who made the Nazca Lines
were trying to communicate with gods, ancestors,
spirits or whatever.
But there was an idea put forward quite recently
by an American scholar
who thought that some of the geoglyphs
might be linked to runoff from hills and channeling the water
and helping the crops to grow.
MIKE TUCKER: There's a trend in backyard gardening called permaculture,
where the gardener digs trenches and
creates swells or hills to sequester the water
or capture the rainfall,
so that way the ecosystem supports their own garden
and they don't have to bring in extra irrigation.
MICHAEL WYSESSION: In places like where the Nazca Lines are,
we see a very barren, arid, dry place, currently.
But if you went back thousands of years,
you'd find alternating periods
of extreme rainfall events.
NEWMAN: We don't have written records of what they were thinking
or what they were doing and why they were building these sites.
The fact is there are different theories
in different parts of the world as to
what they could have been created for.
But whether it's in a desert
or whether it's like chalk hill figures in ancient Britain,
at least they still exist
and we can appreciate and study them today.
From high in the Andes mountains to the steppes of Mongolia,
the evidence of powerful bygone civilizations
is all around us.
What can we learn from the ruins
of these once-great cultures?
Perhaps they show us a cautionary tale
of how empires rise and fall,
as well as reshape our understanding
of human history as we know it.
It's clear that our innate need to explore the mysteries
of our ancient past will keep the search going,
because the most closely guarded secrets
of these mighty kingdoms remain...
unexplained.
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